Peptide Research Database
Finding reliable, peer-reviewed research on peptide therapies should not require hours of digging through PubMed. That is why we built this searchable database of 146 published studies spanning 15 of the most widely discussed therapeutic peptides, from BPC-157 and semaglutide to emerging compounds like MOTS-c and Selank.
Every study listed here has been published in a peer-reviewed journal and indexed on PubMed. We include randomized controlled trials (RCTs), clinical studies, animal models, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses — so you can see the full spectrum of evidence behind each peptide, not just the highlights that support a marketing narrative.
Use the filters below to narrow results by specific peptide, therapeutic category (such as recovery, weight loss, or cognitive function), study type, and publication year. You can also search by keyword across titles, authors, and key findings. Every title links directly to the original PubMed listing so you can read the full abstract or access the complete paper.
Whether you are a patient researching treatment options, a clinician evaluating protocols, or simply someone who wants to separate evidence from hype, this database gives you a transparent, organized starting point grounded in published science.
146
Published Studies
15
Peptides Covered
41
Randomized Controlled Trials
13
Therapeutic Categories
| Title | Peptide(s) | Category | Year | Journal | Type | Key Finding |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emerging Use of BPC-157 in Orthopaedic Sports Medicine: A Systematic Review | BPC-157 | Recovery | 2025 | Sports Medicine - Open | Review | BPC-157 shows promise for promoting recovery from musculoskeletal injuries in sports medicine. Despite lacking FDA approval and being banned in professional sports, it is increasingly used by clinicians and athletes. |
| Effects of nicotinamide riboside on NAD+ levels, cognition, and symptom recovery in long-COVID: a randomized controlled trial | NAD+ | Cognitive, Immune | 2025 | Various | RCT | Nicotinamide riboside supplementation raised NAD+ levels and showed potential benefits for cognitive recovery and symptom relief in patients with long-COVID syndrome. |
| Thymosin alpha 1 alleviates inflammation and prevents infection in patients with severe acute pancreatitis through immune regulation: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2025 | Systematic Reviews | Meta-Analysis | Meta-analysis confirmed that thymosin alpha-1 significantly reduces inflammation and prevents dangerous infections in severe pancreatitis patients by restoring immune function, with consistent benefits across multiple randomized trials. |
| Regeneration or Risk? A Narrative Review of BPC-157 for Musculoskeletal Healing | BPC-157 | Recovery | 2025 | Various | Review | While BPC-157 shows significant regenerative potential for musculoskeletal healing in preclinical studies, the review highlights the lack of human clinical safety data and risks from unregulated manufacturing and contamination. |
| The Potential of the Peptide Drug Semax and Its Derivative for Correcting Pathological Impairments in the Animal Model of Alzheimer's Disease | Semax | Neuroprotection, Cognitive | 2025 | Various | Animal | Semax and its derivatives improved cognitive function in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease, showing potential for correcting the memory and learning deficits associated with neurodegeneration. |
| Oral Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in High-Risk Type 2 Diabetes | Semaglutide | Metabolic, Cardiovascular | 2025 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | Oral semaglutide demonstrated cardiovascular safety and potential benefits in high-risk type 2 diabetes patients, supporting its use as an oral alternative to injectable GLP-1 receptor agonists. |
| Tirzepatide for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction and Obesity | Tirzepatide | Metabolic, Cardiovascular | 2025 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | Tirzepatide significantly improved heart failure symptoms and exercise capacity in patients with HFpEF and obesity, with clinically meaningful improvements in Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire scores. |
| The Effect of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide and Riboside on Skeletal Muscle Mass and Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | NAD+ | Anti-Aging, Recovery | 2025 | Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle | Meta-Analysis | Meta-analysis found NMN and NR supplementation improved measures of skeletal muscle function in older adults, with benefits for grip strength and physical performance, supporting NAD+ precursors for sarcopenia prevention. |
| The efficacy and safety of thymosin alpha 1 for sepsis (TESTS): multicentre, double blinded, randomised, placebo-controlled trial | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2025 | BMJ | RCT | Large multicenter RCT found thymosin alpha 1 did not significantly reduce 28-day mortality in sepsis patients overall, but showed potential benefit in immunosuppressed subgroups, informing precision medicine approaches. |
| Efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2025 | Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology | Meta-Analysis | Meta-analysis of RCTs found thymosin alpha-1 significantly reduced 28-day mortality in sepsis and improved immune function markers, supporting its role as immunomodulatory adjunct therapy in sepsis management. |
| Semaglutide and walking capacity in people with symptomatic peripheral artery disease and type 2 diabetes | Semaglutide | Metabolic, Cardiovascular | 2025 | Lancet | RCT | Semaglutide improved walking capacity and reduced symptoms in patients with peripheral artery disease and type 2 diabetes, demonstrating vascular benefits beyond glycemic and weight control. |
| Effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and co-agonists on body composition: Systematic review and meta-analysis | Tirzepatide | Weight Loss | 2025 | Metabolism | Meta-Analysis | Network meta-analysis showed tirzepatide produced the greatest reduction in fat mass among GLP-1 agonists, while lean mass loss was proportional to total weight loss across all agents studied. |
| Efficacy of oral nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation on glucose and lipid metabolism for adults | NAD+ | Anti-Aging, Metabolic | 2025 | Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition | Meta-Analysis | Meta-analysis confirmed oral NMN supplementation significantly improved fasting blood glucose and insulin sensitivity in adults, with greater effects seen in participants with metabolic dysfunction. |
| Tirzepatide for Obesity Treatment and Diabetes Prevention | Tirzepatide | Weight Loss, Metabolic | 2024 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | Tirzepatide not only reduced body weight in people with obesity but also significantly reduced the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, demonstrating disease-prevention potential beyond weight management. |
| Comprehensive Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Thymosin Alpha 1 in Human Clinical Trials | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2024 | Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine | Review | Across more than 30 clinical trials involving over 11,000 people, thymosin alpha-1 was found to be well-tolerated and effective as an immune modulator, with minimal side effects limited to mild injection site reactions. |
| An 8-Week study on the effects of high and moderate-intensity interval exercises on mitochondrial MOTS-C changes and their relation to metabolic markers in male diabetic sand rats | MOTS-c | Metabolic | 2024 | Biological Research | Animal | High-intensity interval exercise increased MOTS-c levels and improved metabolic markers in diabetic animals, with the peptide mediating the relationship between exercise intensity and metabolic improvements. |
| Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Persons with Obesity and Knee Osteoarthritis | Semaglutide | Weight Loss | 2024 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | Semaglutide 2.4 mg weekly significantly reduced body weight and improved knee osteoarthritis symptoms compared to placebo, with meaningful pain reduction and improved physical function at 68 weeks. |
| Effects of Semaglutide on Chronic Kidney Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes | Semaglutide | Metabolic | 2024 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | Semaglutide significantly reduced the risk of clinically important kidney outcomes by 24% compared to placebo in patients with type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease, establishing renal protective benefits. |
| Long-Term Efficacy and Safety of Once-Weekly Semaglutide for Weight Loss in Patients Without Diabetes | Semaglutide | Weight Loss | 2024 | American Journal of Cardiology | Meta-Analysis | Meta-analysis confirmed semaglutide's long-term efficacy for weight loss in non-diabetic patients, with sustained weight reduction and acceptable safety profile across pooled trial data. |
| Comparative effectiveness of GLP-1 receptor agonists on glycaemic control, body weight, and lipid profile | Tirzepatide | Weight Loss, Metabolic | 2024 | BMJ | Meta-Analysis | Network meta-analysis found tirzepatide superior to all other GLP-1 receptor agonists for glycemic control and weight reduction, with the highest probability of being the best treatment option. |
| Subcutaneously administered tirzepatide vs semaglutide for adults with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Tirzepatide | Weight Loss, Metabolic | 2024 | Diabetologia | Meta-Analysis | Direct comparison meta-analysis showed tirzepatide produced greater HbA1c reduction and weight loss than semaglutide in type 2 diabetes, with comparable safety profiles between the two agents. |
| Tirzepatide for the Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Obesity | Tirzepatide | Weight Loss, Metabolic | 2024 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | Tirzepatide significantly reduced the severity of obstructive sleep apnea in adults with obesity, with up to 63% of participants achieving disease resolution, alongside substantial weight loss. |
| Effect of nicotinamide riboside on airway inflammation in COPD: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial | NAD+ | Anti-Aging, Immune | 2024 | Nature Aging | RCT | Nicotinamide riboside supplementation reduced airway inflammation in COPD patients, with significant improvements in NAD+ metabolism and inflammatory biomarkers, suggesting potential therapeutic applications. |
| Effects of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide on Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | NAD+ | Anti-Aging, Metabolic | 2024 | Current Diabetes Reports | Meta-Analysis | Meta-analysis of NMN trials showed significant improvements in fasting glucose and lipid profiles in adults, with dose-dependent effects supporting NMN's role in metabolic health improvement. |
| Female Sexual Desire, Arousal, and Orgasmic Dysfunctions: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | PT-141 | Sexual Health | 2024 | Journal of Minimally Invasive Gynecology | Meta-Analysis | Meta-analysis including bremelanotide (PT-141) trials confirmed its efficacy for hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women, with significant improvements in desire and reduction in distress scores. |
| Immune-Enhancing Treatment among Acute Necrotizing Pancreatitis Patients with Metabolic Abnormalities | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2024 | Gut and Liver | RCT | Thymosin alpha-1 enhanced immune recovery and reduced infectious complications in acute necrotizing pancreatitis patients with metabolic abnormalities, with improved CD4+/CD8+ ratios and shortened ICU stays. |
| Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT) | Semaglutide | Cardiovascular, Weight Loss | 2023 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | In patients with obesity and cardiovascular disease but without diabetes, semaglutide 2.4 mg weekly reduced cardiovascular death, heart attack, or stroke by 20% over nearly 40 months, proving cardiovascular benefits extend beyond diabetes. |
| Continued Treatment With Tirzepatide for Maintenance of Weight Reduction in Adults With Obesity (SURMOUNT-4) | Tirzepatide | Weight Loss | 2023 | JAMA | RCT | Stopping tirzepatide after initial weight loss led to substantial weight regain, while continuing treatment maintained and even increased weight loss, confirming that long-term treatment is needed for sustained results. |
| Tirzepatide for the treatment of obesity: Rationale and design of the SURMOUNT clinical development program | Tirzepatide | Weight Loss | 2023 | Obesity | Review | The SURMOUNT program was designed as four global phase 3 trials evaluating tirzepatide as the first dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist for chronic weight management, representing a new class of obesity medication. |
| Synergy of GHK-Cu and hyaluronic acid on collagen IV upregulation via fibroblast and ex-vivo skin tests | GHK-Cu | Skin/Hair, Anti-Aging | 2023 | Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology | In Vitro | GHK-Cu combined with hyaluronic acid produced synergistic increases in collagen IV production in human fibroblasts, suggesting these ingredients work better together for skin rejuvenation. |
| Mitochondria-derived peptide MOTS-c: effects and mechanisms related to stress, metabolism and aging | MOTS-c | Metabolic, Anti-Aging | 2023 | Molecules | Review | MOTS-c plays key roles in stress response, metabolism, and aging through the AMPK pathway, with levels declining as we age, suggesting supplementation may help maintain metabolic health in older adults. |
| The Safety and Antiaging Effects of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide in Human Clinical Trials: an Update | NAD+ | Anti-Aging | 2023 | Advances in Nutrition | Review | Across multiple human clinical trials, oral NMN was generally safe and showed potential as an anti-aging agent, though only a limited number of health indicators have been studied so far. |
| A randomized placebo-controlled trial of nicotinamide riboside in older adults with mild cognitive impairment | NAD+ | Cognitive, Anti-Aging | 2023 | GeroScience | RCT | Nicotinamide riboside raised blood NAD+ levels and modestly reduced biological age markers (epigenetic clocks) in older adults with mild cognitive impairment, though cognitive test scores did not significantly change. |
| Semaglutide for the treatment of obesity | Semaglutide | Weight Loss | 2023 | Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine | Review | Comprehensive review of semaglutide for obesity treatment, covering the STEP trial program showing 14.9% mean weight loss at 68 weeks with 2.4 mg weekly dosing. Reviewed cardiovascular benefits and GI side effect profile. |
| Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity in people with type 2 diabetes (SURMOUNT-2) | Tirzepatide | Weight Loss, Metabolic | 2023 | Lancet | RCT | In the SURMOUNT-2 trial, tirzepatide 10 mg and 15 mg weekly produced 12.8% and 14.7% weight loss respectively in adults with obesity and type 2 diabetes, with significant HbA1c reductions, establishing dual efficacy for weight and glycemic control. |
| MOTS-c: A promising mitochondrial-derived peptide for therapeutic exploitation | MOTS-c | Metabolic, Anti-Aging | 2023 | Frontiers in Endocrinology | Review | MOTS-c shows therapeutic promise for metabolic syndrome, diabetes, obesity, and aging-related diseases by mimicking exercise benefits at the cellular level through AMPK activation and improved mitochondrial function. |
| Efficacy and safety of tirzepatide for treatment of overweight or obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis | Tirzepatide | Weight Loss | 2023 | International Journal of Obesity | Meta-Analysis | Meta-analysis of tirzepatide trials confirmed dose-dependent weight loss of 15-21% at highest doses, with the 15 mg dose showing the greatest efficacy. GI adverse events were the most common but generally manageable. |
| Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide metabolism and arterial stiffness after long-term nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation | NAD+ | Anti-Aging, Cardiovascular | 2023 | Scientific Reports | RCT | Long-term NMN supplementation significantly increased blood NAD+ levels and reduced arterial stiffness in middle-aged and older adults, suggesting cardiovascular aging benefits. |
| Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Augmentation in Overweight or Obese Middle-Aged and Older Adults | NAD+ | Anti-Aging, Metabolic | 2023 | Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | RCT | NMN supplementation (1000 mg/day) significantly increased muscle NAD+ content and improved muscle insulin signaling in overweight/obese older adults, with good tolerability over 28 days. |
| Effects of Thymalfasin for Injection on Perioperative Immune Function | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2023 | Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Reviews | RCT | Perioperative thymalfasin (thymosin alpha 1) significantly enhanced immune function markers including CD4+ T cells and NK cell activity, with reduced postoperative infection rates in surgical patients. |
| A pilot trial of Thymalfasin (Ta1) to prevent covid-19 infection and morbidities in renal dialysis patients | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2023 | International Immunopharmacology | RCT | Thymalfasin showed potential to reduce COVID-19 infection rates and severity in immunocompromised dialysis patients, with enhanced immune responses and good safety profile in this vulnerable population. |
| The efficacy of thymosin alpha-1 therapy in moderate to critical COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2023 | Inflammopharmacology | Meta-Analysis | Meta-analysis showed thymosin alpha-1 reduced mortality and improved immune markers in moderate-to-critical COVID-19 patients, with significant increases in CD4+ and CD8+ T cell counts. |
| Two-year effects of semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity: the STEP 5 trial | Semaglutide | Weight Loss | 2022 | Nature Medicine | RCT | Over two years, semaglutide 2.4 mg weekly produced sustained weight loss of 15.2% versus 2.6% with placebo, demonstrating that weight loss benefits are maintained with continued long-term treatment. |
| Weight regain and cardiometabolic effects after withdrawal of semaglutide: The STEP 1 trial extension | Semaglutide | Weight Loss, Metabolic | 2022 | Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism | RCT | After stopping semaglutide, participants regained about two-thirds of their prior weight loss within one year, and improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors also reversed, highlighting that obesity requires ongoing treatment. |
| Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1) | Tirzepatide | Weight Loss | 2022 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | Tirzepatide produced unprecedented weight loss in obesity: 15% with 5 mg, 19.5% with 10 mg, and 22.5% with the 15 mg dose over 72 weeks, making it the most effective weight loss injectable studied to date. |
| Effect of Subcutaneous Tirzepatide vs Placebo Added to Titrated Insulin Glargine on Glycemic Control in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-5) | Tirzepatide | Metabolic | 2022 | JAMA | RCT | Adding tirzepatide to insulin therapy significantly improved blood sugar control in type 2 diabetes patients already taking insulin, with HbA1c reductions of up to 2.4 percentage points. |
| The potential of GHK as an anti-aging peptide | GHK-Cu | Anti-Aging | 2022 | Aging Pathobiology and Therapeutics | Review | GHK-Cu shows broad anti-aging potential through wound healing acceleration, antioxidant activity, collagen stimulation, and gene expression modulation, with clinical evidence for tightening skin, improving elasticity, and reducing wrinkles. |
| Semax, a Synthetic Regulatory Peptide, Affects Copper-Induced Abeta Aggregation and Amyloid Formation in Artificial Membrane Models | Semax | Neuroprotection, Cognitive | 2022 | International Journal of Molecular Sciences | In Vitro | Semax binds copper ions and inhibits the formation of amyloid-beta aggregates (the toxic protein clumps found in Alzheimer's disease), suggesting potential neuroprotective applications for dementia prevention. |
| Exercise, Mitohormesis, and Mitochondrial ORF of the 12S rRNA Type-C (MOTS-c) | MOTS-c | Metabolic, Muscle Growth | 2022 | Antioxidants | Review | Exercise increases MOTS-c levels up to 11.9-fold in skeletal muscle, and the peptide mimics many of the metabolic benefits of exercise including improved insulin sensitivity and enhanced cellular energy production. |
| MOTS-c, the Most Recent Mitochondrial Derived Peptide in Human Aging and Age-Related Diseases | MOTS-c | Anti-Aging, Metabolic | 2022 | International Journal of Molecular Sciences | Review | MOTS-c levels decline with age and are lower in people with age-related diseases. Supplementation shows promise for improving cardiovascular health, diabetes management, and longevity. |
| Chronic nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation elevates blood nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide levels and alters muscle function in healthy older men | NAD+ | Anti-Aging, Muscle Growth | 2022 | NPJ Aging | RCT | 250 mg daily NMN supplementation for 6-12 weeks significantly increased blood NAD+ levels in older men, with exploratory analyses suggesting improvements in muscle strength, an important indicator of healthy aging. |
| The efficacy and safety of beta-nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) supplementation in healthy middle-aged adults: a randomized, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, dose-dependent clinical trial | NAD+ | Anti-Aging | 2022 | GeroScience | RCT | In a dose-ranging study (300-900 mg/day for 60 days), NMN supplementation was safe and well-tolerated in healthy middle-aged adults, with improvements in physical performance and biological age markers. |
| A Multicentre, Randomised, Double Blind, Parallel Design, Placebo Controlled Study to Evaluate the Efficacy and Safety of Uthever (NMN Supplement) in Middle Aged and Older Adults | NAD+ | Anti-Aging | 2022 | Frontiers in Aging | RCT | NMN supplementation improved walking endurance and biological markers of aging in middle-aged and older adults over 60 days, with significant increases in blood NAD+ metabolite levels. |
| Stable Gastric Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and Wound Healing | BPC-157 | Recovery | 2021 | Frontiers in Pharmacology | Review | BPC-157 simultaneously heals wounds across multiple tissue types including skin, muscle, tendon, and bone, with effects mediated through the NO system and rapid restoration of blood supply to injured areas. |
| Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 1) | Semaglutide | Weight Loss | 2021 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | Adults receiving semaglutide 2.4 mg weekly lost an average of 14.9% body weight over 68 weeks versus 2.4% with placebo. 34.8% of semaglutide patients achieved 20% or greater weight loss compared to only 2% on placebo. |
| Semaglutide 2.4 mg once a week in adults with overweight or obesity, and type 2 diabetes (STEP 2) | Semaglutide | Weight Loss, Metabolic | 2021 | The Lancet | RCT | In adults with overweight/obesity and type 2 diabetes, semaglutide 2.4 mg weekly achieved clinically meaningful weight loss compared to placebo, demonstrating effectiveness even in patients with diabetes. |
| Effect of Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Placebo as an Adjunct to Intensive Behavioral Therapy on Body Weight in Adults With Overweight or Obesity (STEP 3) | Semaglutide | Weight Loss | 2021 | JAMA | RCT | When combined with intensive behavioral therapy and an initial low-calorie diet, semaglutide 2.4 mg weekly produced 16.0% body weight reduction at 68 weeks versus 5.7% with placebo, showing additive benefits with lifestyle changes. |
| Effect of Continued Weekly Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Placebo on Weight Loss Maintenance in Adults With Overweight or Obesity (STEP 4) | Semaglutide | Weight Loss | 2021 | JAMA | RCT | Continuing semaglutide after an initial 20-week treatment period maintained weight loss (-7.9% additional), while switching to placebo led to significant weight regain (+6.9%), demonstrating the importance of continued therapy. |
| Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2) | Tirzepatide, Semaglutide | Metabolic, Weight Loss | 2021 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | Tirzepatide at all three doses was superior to semaglutide 1 mg for reducing blood sugar (HbA1c) and body weight in type 2 diabetes patients over 40 weeks, establishing it as a more potent dual-action therapy. |
| Brain Protein Expression Profile Confirms the Protective Effect of the ACTH(4-7)PGP Peptide (Semax) in a Rat Model of Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion | Semax | Neuroprotection | 2021 | International Journal of Molecular Sciences | Animal | Protein analysis confirmed that Semax protects brain tissue during stroke by modifying the expression of proteins involved in energy metabolism, stress response, and cell survival pathways. |
| Effect of aerobic and resistance exercise on the mitochondrial peptide MOTS-c in Hispanic and Non-Hispanic White breast cancer survivors | MOTS-c | Metabolic | 2021 | Scientific Reports | Clinical | Both aerobic and resistance exercise increased circulating MOTS-c levels in breast cancer survivors, with ethnic variations in response, suggesting exercise-induced MOTS-c may contribute to cancer survivorship benefits. |
| Nicotinamide mononucleotide increases muscle insulin sensitivity in prediabetic women | NAD+ | Metabolic, Anti-Aging | 2021 | Science | RCT | 10 weeks of NMN supplementation improved muscle insulin sensitivity in prediabetic women, enhancing the body's ability to use blood sugar and upregulating genes involved in muscle remodeling. |
| Utilizing Developmentally Essential Secreted Peptides Such as Thymosin Beta-4 to Remind the Adult Organs of Their Embryonic State - New Directions in Anti-Aging Regenerative Therapies | TB-500 | Anti-Aging, Recovery | 2021 | Cells | Review | Thymosin beta-4 can reactivate embryonic regenerative programs in adult tissues, offering a revolutionary approach to anti-aging by essentially reminding damaged organs how to repair themselves as they did during development. |
| Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2020 | World Journal of Virology | Review | Thymosin alpha-1 modulates immunity through toll-like receptor interactions and has shown promising results in clinical trials for DiGeorge syndrome, lung cancer, liver cancer, hepatitis B and C, HIV, and melanoma. |
| Functional Connectomic Approach to Studying Selank and Semax Effects | Semax, Selank | Cognitive, Neuroprotection | 2020 | Doklady Biological Sciences | Clinical | Both Semax and Selank produced measurable changes in brain connectivity patterns, with Semax primarily affecting cognitive networks and Selank influencing emotional regulation circuits. |
| Gastric pentadecapeptide body protection compound BPC 157 and its role in accelerating musculoskeletal soft tissue healing | BPC-157 | Recovery | 2019 | Cell Tissue Research | Review | BPC-157 demonstrated significant ability to accelerate healing across multiple soft tissue types including muscle, tendon, and ligament in preclinical models, with effects linked to increased growth factor activity and reduced inflammation. |
| Selank, Peptide Analogue of Tuftsin, Protects Against Ethanol-Induced Memory Impairment by Regulating of BDNF Content in the Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex in Rats | Selank | Cognitive, Neuroprotection | 2019 | Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine | Animal | Selank protected against alcohol-induced memory loss by regulating BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) levels in key brain regions involved in memory formation and decision-making. |
| Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Two Randomized Phase 3 Trials (RECONNECT) | PT-141 | Sexual Health | 2019 | Obstetrics & Gynecology | RCT | In two large phase 3 trials, bremelanotide significantly improved sexual desire and reduced related distress in premenopausal women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder, leading to FDA approval as Vyleesi. |
| Comparative efficacy, safety, and cardiovascular outcomes with once-weekly subcutaneous semaglutide in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: Insights from the SUSTAIN 1-7 trials | Semaglutide | Metabolic, Cardiovascular | 2019 | Therapeutic Advances in Endocrinology and Metabolism | Review | Across the SUSTAIN 1-7 trial program, once-weekly semaglutide consistently improved blood sugar control and promoted weight loss in type 2 diabetes, with cardiovascular safety confirmed and potential heart benefits observed. |
| BPC 157 and Standard Angiogenic Growth Factors. Gastrointestinal Tract Healing, Lessons from Tendon, Ligament, Muscle and Bone Healing | BPC-157 | Recovery, Gut Health | 2018 | Current Pharmaceutical Design | Review | BPC-157 promotes healing of GI tract, tendon, ligament, muscle, and bone through angiogenic pathways, working alongside standard growth factors like VEGF and FGF to restore blood supply and tissue integrity. |
| Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 in the treatment of colitis and ischemia and reperfusion in rats: New insights | BPC-157 | Gut Health, Cardiovascular | 2018 | World Journal of Gastroenterology | Animal | BPC-157 effectively treated colitis and protected against ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats, with effects linked to the NO system and rapid activation of collateral blood vessel pathways. |
| Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data | GHK-Cu | Anti-Aging, Skin/Hair | 2018 | International Journal of Molecular Sciences | Review | GHK-Cu can modulate the activity of over 4,000 human genes, essentially resetting DNA expression patterns toward a healthier state. It activates genes involved in tissue repair while suppressing those linked to disease. |
| Peptide-based Anxiolytics: The Molecular Aspects of Heptapeptide Selank Biological Activity | Selank | Cognitive | 2018 | Protein and Peptide Letters | Review | Selank works through multiple mechanisms including modulating GABA receptors, influencing serotonin metabolism, and affecting brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression, making it a multi-target anxiolytic peptide. |
| Chronic nicotinamide riboside supplementation is well-tolerated and elevates NAD+ in healthy middle-aged and older adults | NAD+ | Anti-Aging | 2018 | Nature Communications | RCT | Nicotinamide riboside supplementation was well tolerated and successfully raised blood NAD+ levels in healthy older adults, with preliminary signals suggesting potential benefits for blood pressure and arterial stiffness. |
| The Effect of the Human Peptide GHK on Gene Expression Relevant to Nervous System Function and Cognitive Decline | GHK-Cu | Cognitive, Neuroprotection | 2017 | Brain Sciences | Review | GHK modulates genes relevant to nervous system function and may help prevent cognitive decline by upregulating neuroprotective genes while suppressing those involved in neurodegeneration. |
| Growth Hormone Secretagogue Treatment in Hypogonadal Men Raises Serum Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 Levels | Sermorelin | Hormone, Muscle Growth | 2017 | World Journal of Men's Health | Clinical | Growth hormone secretagogue therapy raised IGF-1 levels in men with low testosterone, suggesting these peptides can help improve growth hormone status as an adjunct to testosterone replacement therapy. |
| Brain-gut Axis and Pentadecapeptide BPC 157: Theoretical and Practical Implications | BPC-157 | Gut Health, Neuroprotection | 2016 | Current Neuropharmacology | Review | BPC-157 acts on the brain-gut axis, protecting neurons, promoting peripheral nerve regeneration, counteracting traumatic brain injury, and rescuing function after spinal cord damage, while simultaneously healing GI disorders. |
| Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SUSTAIN-6) | Semaglutide | Cardiovascular, Metabolic | 2016 | New England Journal of Medicine | RCT | Once-weekly semaglutide reduced major cardiovascular events by 26% compared to placebo in type 2 diabetes patients at high cardiovascular risk over 104 weeks, primarily driven by reductions in nonfatal stroke. |
| Immune Modulation with Thymosin Alpha 1 Treatment | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2016 | Vitamins and Hormones | Review | Thymosin alpha-1 enhances immune function by activating dendritic cells, promoting T-cell maturation, and modulating cytokine production, making it useful for treating infections, cancer, and immune deficiency. |
| Selank Administration Affects the Expression of Some Genes Involved in GABAergic Neurotransmission | Selank | Cognitive, Neuroprotection | 2016 | Frontiers in Pharmacology | In Vitro | Selank influences the GABA system by modifying the expression of genes involved in GABA neurotransmission, helping explain its calming anti-anxiety effects at the molecular level. |
| MOTS-c: A novel mitochondrial-derived peptide regulating muscle and fat metabolism | MOTS-c | Metabolic, Muscle Growth | 2016 | Free Radical Biology and Medicine | Review | MOTS-c regulates both muscle and fat metabolism by improving insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle and promoting the conversion of white fat to calorie-burning brown fat, while reducing inflammatory markers. |
| Significant improvement in crow's feet after treatment with Jet-M and a mixed solution of copper-GHK | GHK-Cu | Skin/Hair | 2016 | Journal of Cosmetic and Laser Therapy | Clinical | Treatment with copper-GHK peptide solution via transdermal delivery significantly improved crow's feet wrinkles, with clinical assessment showing visible reduction in periorbital wrinkle depth and improved skin texture. |
| Netnography of Female Use of the Synthetic Growth Hormone CJC-1295: Pulses and Potions | CJC-1295 | Hormone | 2016 | Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy | Cohort | Analysis of women using CJC-1295 revealed common motivations including anti-aging, fat loss, and muscle building, with most users combining it with other peptides and reporting improved body composition. |
| Body protective compound-157 enhances alkali-burn wound healing in vivo and promotes proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis in vitro | BPC-157 | Recovery | 2015 | Burns | Animal | BPC-157 significantly enhanced healing of alkali-burn wounds in rats and promoted blood vessel growth, cell multiplication, and cell migration in lab experiments. |
| GHK Peptide as a Natural Modulator of Multiple Cellular Pathways in Skin Regeneration | GHK-Cu | Skin/Hair, Anti-Aging | 2015 | BioMed Research International | Review | GHK-Cu stimulates blood vessel and nerve growth, increases collagen, elastin, and glycosaminoglycan production, and supports skin fibroblast function, making it a comprehensive skin regeneration agent. |
| The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance | MOTS-c | Metabolic, Weight Loss | 2015 | Cell Metabolism | Animal | MOTS-c, a peptide encoded in mitochondrial DNA, prevented age-dependent and high-fat-diet-induced insulin resistance and obesity in mice by targeting skeletal muscle and activating the AMPK energy-sensing pathway. |
| Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 heals cysteamine-colitis and colon-colon-anastomosis and counteracts cuprizone brain injuries and motor disability | BPC-157 | Gut Health, Neuroprotection | 2014 | Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology | Animal | BPC-157 healed colitis and colon surgical connections while also counteracting brain injuries caused by cuprizone, reducing nerve damage across multiple brain areas and restoring motor function. |
| A comparison of the anxiolytic effect and tolerability of selank and phenazepam in the treatment of anxiety disorders | Selank | Cognitive | 2014 | Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova | Clinical | Selank showed comparable anxiety-reducing effects to the benzodiazepine phenazepam but with better tolerability and without the sedation, cognitive impairment, and addiction risk associated with benzodiazepines. |
| Efficacy of peptide anxiolytic selank during modeling of withdrawal syndrome in rats with stable alcoholic motivation | Selank | Cognitive | 2014 | Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine | Animal | Selank reduced anxiety and other withdrawal symptoms in rats with established alcohol dependence, suggesting potential therapeutic use for managing alcohol withdrawal. |
| Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone Effects on Brain GABA Levels in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Healthy Aging | Sermorelin | Cognitive, Anti-Aging | 2013 | Journal of Alzheimer's Disease | Clinical | GHRH treatment (sermorelin analog) improved performance on tests of fluid intelligence in healthy older adults and positively affected brain GABA levels in people with mild cognitive impairment. |
| Thymosin beta4 enhances the healing of medial collateral ligament injury in rat | TB-500 | Recovery | 2013 | Regulatory Peptides | Animal | Local injection of thymosin beta-4 improved ligament healing both structurally and mechanically in a rat model, providing evidence for potential clinical use in repairing ligament injuries. |
| Focus on ulcerative colitis: stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 | BPC-157 | Gut Health | 2012 | Current Medicinal Chemistry | Review | BPC-157 is an anti-ulcer peptide safe in inflammatory bowel disease clinical trials with no reported toxicity, showing ability to heal colitis and counteract various GI injuries in animal models. |
| The human tripeptide GHK-Cu in prevention of oxidative stress and degenerative conditions of aging: implications for cognitive health | GHK-Cu | Anti-Aging, Cognitive, Neuroprotection | 2012 | Ageing Research Reviews | Review | GHK-Cu prevents oxidative stress and may protect against age-related cognitive decline. Blood levels of GHK decline from 200 ng/mL at age 20 to 80 ng/mL by age 60, coinciding with reduced regenerative capacity. |
| Thymosin beta4: a multi-functional regenerative peptide. Basic properties and clinical applications | TB-500 | Recovery, Cardiovascular | 2012 | Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy | Review | Thymosin beta-4 plays a vital role in tissue repair by protecting cells from damage, reducing inflammation, promoting stem cell migration, and stimulating new blood vessel growth. Phase 2 trials in skin ulcers showed healing acceleration by nearly a month. |
| The regenerative peptide thymosin beta4 accelerates the rate of dermal healing in preclinical animal models and in patients | TB-500 | Recovery, Skin/Hair | 2012 | Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | Clinical | In two phase 2 clinical trials for stasis and pressure ulcers, thymosin beta-4 accelerated wound healing by almost a month in patients who healed, demonstrating meaningful clinical benefit in difficult-to-treat wounds. |
| The promoting effect of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on tendon healing involves tendon outgrowth, cell survival, and cell migration | BPC-157 | Recovery | 2011 | Journal of Applied Physiology | Animal | BPC-157 promotes tendon healing through three key mechanisms: promoting outgrowth of tendon fibroblasts, improving cell survival under stress, and enhancing cell migration via the FAK-paxillin signaling pathway. |
| Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157: novel therapy in gastrointestinal tract | BPC-157 | Gut Health | 2011 | Current Pharmaceutical Design | Review | BPC-157 represents a novel GI therapy with demonstrated effects on gastric ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease, liver damage, and pancreatic lesions, working through multiple protective mechanisms including NO system modulation. |
| Thymosin beta4 enhances repair by organizing connective tissue and preventing the appearance of myofibroblasts | TB-500 | Recovery, Skin/Hair | 2010 | Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | Animal | Thymosin beta-4 treated wounds matured earlier and healed with minimal scarring by decreasing the number of myofibroblasts (scar-forming cells), resulting in better-organized tissue repair. |
| Animal studies with thymosin beta 4, a multifunctional tissue repair and regeneration peptide | TB-500 | Recovery | 2010 | Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | Review | Across multiple animal studies, thymosin beta-4 demonstrated repair and regeneration capabilities in skin, eyes, heart, and brain tissue, establishing it as one of the most versatile tissue repair peptides studied. |
| Thymosin beta4 and cardiac repair | TB-500 | Cardiovascular, Recovery | 2010 | Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | Review | Thymosin beta-4 promotes cardiac repair after heart injury by activating cardiac progenitor cells, reducing cell death, and stimulating new blood vessel formation in damaged heart tissue. |
| Thymosin alpha 1: past clinical experience and future promise | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2010 | Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | Review | Thymosin alpha-1 has over 20 years of clinical use as an immune system enhancer, with proven efficacy in chronic hepatitis B and C, cancer immunotherapy, and as a vaccine adjuvant in immunocompromised patients. |
| Thymosin alpha 1 is associated with improved cellular immunity and reduced infection rate in severe acute pancreatitis patients in a double-blind randomized control study | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2010 | Annals of Surgery | RCT | In patients with severe acute pancreatitis, thymosin alpha-1 improved immune cell function and significantly reduced the rate of dangerous secondary infections, which are a major cause of death in this condition. |
| Efficacy of ipamorelin, a novel ghrelin mimetic, in a rodent model of postoperative ileus | Ipamorelin | Gut Health | 2009 | Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery | Animal | Ipamorelin showed promise in treating postoperative bowel paralysis (ileus), accelerating the return of normal gut function after abdominal surgery in both animal models and early clinical testing. |
| Growth hormone and growth hormone secretagogue effects on nitrogen balance and urea synthesis in steroid treated rats | Ipamorelin | Muscle Growth | 2009 | Growth Hormone & IGF Research | Animal | Ipamorelin improved nitrogen balance (an indicator of muscle preservation) in rats treated with corticosteroids, suggesting it may help prevent muscle wasting during steroid therapy. |
| Activation of the GH/IGF-1 axis by CJC-1295, a long-acting GHRH analog, results in serum protein profile changes in normal adult subjects | CJC-1295 | Hormone | 2009 | Growth Hormone & IGF Research | Clinical | CJC-1295 activation of the growth hormone axis produced measurable changes in serum protein profiles in healthy adults, reflecting the broad metabolic effects of sustained GH/IGF-1 stimulation. |
| Thymosin beta 4: A novel corneal wound healing and anti-inflammatory agent | TB-500 | Recovery | 2009 | Clinical Ophthalmology | Review | Thymosin beta-4 promotes corneal wound healing and reduces inflammation in the eye, with promising results in preclinical and early clinical studies for treating corneal injuries and dry eye conditions. |
| The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling | GHK-Cu | Recovery, Skin/Hair | 2008 | Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition | Review | GHK attracts immune cells and fibroblasts to wound sites, stimulates collagen synthesis, and promotes tissue remodeling. Clinical studies on aged skin showed it tightens skin, improves elasticity, and reduces fine lines and photodamage. |
| Efficacy and possible mechanisms of action of a new peptide anxiolytic selank in the therapy of generalized anxiety disorders and neurasthenia | Selank | Cognitive | 2008 | Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova | Clinical | Selank was highly effective in treating generalized anxiety disorder and neurasthenia, with anti-anxiety effects comparable to low-dose benzodiazepines but without causing amnesia, withdrawal symptoms, or dependence. |
| Salvage of sildenafil failures with bremelanotide: a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study | PT-141 | Sexual Health | 2008 | Journal of Urology | RCT | 33.5% of men who had failed Viagra treatment achieved positive clinical results with bremelanotide versus only 8.5% with placebo, confirming it as a viable alternative for Viagra non-responders. |
| Pentadecapeptide BPC 157, in clinical trials as a therapy for inflammatory bowel disease (PL14736), is effective in the healing of colocutaneous fistulas in rats: role of the nitric oxide-system | BPC-157 | Gut Health, Recovery | 2008 | Journal of Pharmacological Sciences | Animal | BPC-157, which was already in clinical trials for IBD under the name PL14736, effectively healed colocutaneous fistulas in rats through mechanisms involving the nitric oxide system. |
| Effects of heptapeptide selank on genetically-based and situation-provoked symptoms of depression in behavior in WAG/Rij and Wistar rats, and in BALB/c mice | Selank | Cognitive | 2008 | Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova | Animal | Selank showed antidepressant-like effects in multiple animal models of depression, reducing depressive behaviors caused by both genetic predisposition and environmental stress. |
| Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 in trials for inflammatory bowel disease heals ileoileal anastomosis in the rat | BPC-157 | Gut Health, Recovery | 2007 | Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology | Animal | BPC-157, which was already being tested in inflammatory bowel disease clinical trials, successfully healed surgical intestinal connections (ileoileal anastomosis) in rats, suggesting benefits for post-surgical gut recovery. |
| Sermorelin: a review of its use in the diagnosis and treatment of children with idiopathic growth hormone deficiency | Sermorelin | Hormone | 2007 | BioDrugs | Review | Daily bedtime injections of sermorelin effectively treated growth hormone deficiency in children, with significant increases in height velocity sustained over 12 months and maintained for up to 36 months of treatment. |
| Melanocortins in the treatment of male and female sexual dysfunction | PT-141 | Sexual Health | 2007 | Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry | Review | Melanocortin agonists like PT-141 represent a new class of sexual dysfunction treatments that work through brain pathways rather than peripheral blood flow, offering help for both men and women regardless of the underlying cause. |
| Achilles detachment in rat and stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157: Promoted tendon-to-bone healing and opposed corticosteroid aggravation | BPC-157 | Recovery | 2006 | Journal of Orthopaedic Research | Animal | BPC-157 promoted tendon-to-bone healing after Achilles detachment and counteracted the negative effects of corticosteroids on the healing process in rats. |
| Sermorelin: a better approach to management of adult-onset growth hormone insufficiency? | Sermorelin | Hormone, Anti-Aging | 2006 | Clinical Interventions in Aging | Review | Sermorelin stimulates natural growth hormone production from the pituitary rather than replacing it, offering a more physiological approach to treating adult growth hormone deficiency with fewer side effects than direct GH replacement. |
| Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of GH-releasing hormone, in healthy adults | CJC-1295 | Hormone | 2006 | Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | Clinical | A single injection of CJC-1295 increased growth hormone levels 2-10 fold for 6+ days and IGF-1 levels 1.5-3 fold for 9-11 days in healthy adults, demonstrating remarkably long-lasting effects from a single dose. |
| Pulsatile secretion of growth hormone (GH) persists during continuous stimulation by CJC-1295, a long-acting GH-releasing hormone analog | CJC-1295 | Hormone | 2006 | Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | Clinical | CJC-1295 increased growth hormone and IGF-1 levels while preserving the body's natural pulsatile GH release pattern, meaning it enhances growth hormone without disrupting normal hormonal rhythms. |
| Once-daily administration of CJC-1295, a long-acting growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) analog, normalizes growth in the GHRH knockout mouse | CJC-1295 | Hormone | 2006 | American Journal of Physiology | Animal | Daily CJC-1295 completely normalized growth in mice lacking natural growth hormone-releasing hormone, confirming it can fully substitute for the body's own GHRH signal to restore growth hormone production. |
| Semax, an analog of ACTH(4-10) with cognitive effects, regulates BDNF and trkB expression in the rat hippocampus | Semax | Cognitive, Neuroprotection | 2006 | Brain Research | Animal | Semax increased BDNF (brain growth factor) levels in the hippocampus, the brain's memory center, and activated its receptor trkB, explaining how it enhances learning and memory formation. |
| Semax, an analogue of adrenocorticotropin (4-10), binds specifically and increases levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein in rat basal forebrain | Semax | Cognitive, Neuroprotection | 2006 | Neuroscience | Animal | Intranasal Semax at doses of 50-250 mcg/kg rapidly increased BDNF levels within 3 hours in the basal forebrain, a brain region critical for memory and attention. |
| An effect on the subjective sexual response in premenopausal women with sexual arousal disorder by bremelanotide (PT-141), a melanocortin receptor agonist | PT-141 | Sexual Health | 2006 | Journal of Sexual Medicine | RCT | Bremelanotide (PT-141) significantly improved subjective sexual arousal and desire in premenopausal women with sexual arousal disorder, establishing it as the first centrally-acting treatment for female sexual dysfunction. |
| Protective effects of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on gastric ulcer in rats | BPC-157 | Gut Health | 2004 | World Journal of Gastroenterology | Animal | Both injected and oral BPC-157 reduced ulcer area and accelerated healing in chronic gastric ulcer models. At the optimal dose, ulcers were almost completely healed with significant rebuilding of the stomach lining. |
| Thymosin beta4 promotes angiogenesis, wound healing, and hair follicle development | TB-500 | Skin/Hair, Recovery | 2004 | Experimental Cell Research | Animal | Thymosin beta-4 stimulated new blood vessel growth, accelerated wound closure, and promoted hair follicle development in mice, suggesting potential applications in hair loss treatment. |
| AOD-9604 Metabolic | AOD-9604 | Weight Loss | 2004 | Current Opinion in Investigational Drugs | Clinical | In a 12-week randomized clinical trial, subjects receiving 1 mg/day AOD-9604 lost an average of 2.6 kg compared to 0.8 kg with placebo, though the dose-response relationship was not straightforward. |
| Double-blind, placebo-controlled evaluation of the safety, pharmacokinetic properties and pharmacodynamic effects of intranasal PT-141, a melanocortin receptor agonist, in healthy males and patients with mild-to-moderate erectile dysfunction | PT-141 | Sexual Health | 2004 | International Journal of Impotence Research | RCT | PT-141 induced significant erectile responses within 30 minutes at doses above 7 mg, working through a completely different brain-based mechanism than Viagra and similar drugs that act on blood vessels. |
| Evaluation of the safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects of subcutaneously administered PT-141, a melanocortin receptor agonist, in healthy male subjects and in patients with an inadequate response to Viagra | PT-141 | Sexual Health | 2004 | International Journal of Impotence Research | Clinical | PT-141 produced erectile responses in men who did not respond to Viagra, demonstrating its unique brain-based mechanism can help patients who fail conventional treatments. |
| Gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 accelerates healing of transected rat Achilles tendon and in vitro stimulates tendocytes growth | BPC-157 | Recovery | 2003 | Journal of Orthopaedic Research | Animal | BPC-157 fully improved recovery of transected Achilles tendon in rats, with increased load-bearing capacity, better cellular organization, more collagen formation, and complete restoration of tendon integrity. |
| A pilot study of the safety and efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 in augmenting immune reconstitution in HIV-infected patients with low CD4 counts taking highly active antiretroviral therapy | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2003 | AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses | Clinical | Thymosin alpha-1 appeared safe and showed potential to boost immune recovery in HIV patients whose immune systems were not fully responding to antiretroviral therapy. |
| PT-141: a melanocortin agonist for the treatment of sexual dysfunction | PT-141 | Sexual Health | 2003 | Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | Review | PT-141 is a first-in-class melanocortin agonist that works through the brain rather than blood vessels to treat sexual dysfunction, offering a novel mechanism of action for both men and women. |
| Influence of chronic treatment with the growth hormone secretagogue Ipamorelin, in young female rats: somatotroph response in vitro | Ipamorelin | Hormone | 2002 | Hormone Research | Animal | Chronic ipamorelin treatment maintained its ability to stimulate growth hormone release over time without desensitization, suggesting it can be used for extended periods without losing effectiveness. |
| The growth hormone secretagogue ipamorelin counteracts glucocorticoid-induced decrease in bone formation of adult rats | Ipamorelin | Recovery | 2001 | Growth Hormone & IGF Research | Animal | Ipamorelin counteracted the bone-damaging effects of corticosteroid drugs by increasing bone formation rate, suggesting it may protect bone health in patients taking steroids. |
| The effects of human GH and its lipolytic fragment (AOD9604) on lipid metabolism following chronic treatment in obese mice and beta(3)-AR knock-out mice | AOD-9604 | Weight Loss, Metabolic | 2001 | Endocrinology | Animal | Chronic AOD-9604 treatment reduced body weight and increased fat oxidation in obese mice similarly to full growth hormone, but without triggering growth hormone receptor signaling or affecting blood sugar regulation. |
| Increase of fat oxidation and weight loss in obese mice caused by chronic treatment with human growth hormone or a modified C-terminal fragment | AOD-9604 | Weight Loss | 2001 | International Journal of Obesity | Animal | Both full growth hormone and AOD-9604 caused significant weight loss and fat oxidation in obese mice, but AOD-9604 achieved this without the diabetogenic side effects of full growth hormone therapy. |
| Thymosin alpha-1 | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 2001 | BioDrugs | Review | Thymosin alpha-1 (thymalfasin) enhances immune function and is well tolerated, with the most common adverse effects being mild injection site reactions. It was approved in multiple countries for hepatitis treatment. |
| The GH secretagogues ipamorelin and GH-releasing peptide-6 increase bone mineral content in adult female rats | Ipamorelin | Recovery, Anti-Aging | 2000 | In Vivo | Animal | Ipamorelin and GHRP-6 both significantly increased bone mineral content in adult female rats, suggesting potential for treating osteoporosis and age-related bone loss. |
| Metabolic studies of a synthetic lipolytic domain (AOD9604) of human growth hormone | AOD-9604 | Weight Loss | 2000 | Hormone Research | Animal | AOD-9604, a fragment of human growth hormone, increased fat burning and reduced body weight gain in obese mice by over 50% in just 19 days, without affecting insulin sensitivity or appetite. |
| Methylprednisolone does not inhibit the release of growth hormone after intravenous injection of a novel growth hormone secretagogue in rats | Ipamorelin | Hormone | 2000 | Life Sciences | Animal | Ipamorelin continued to stimulate growth hormone release even during corticosteroid treatment, unlike other GH-releasing peptides that are suppressed, making it uniquely useful for patients on steroid medications. |
| Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of ipamorelin, a growth hormone releasing peptide, in human volunteers | Ipamorelin | Hormone | 1999 | Pharmaceutical Research | Clinical | Ipamorelin showed a short half-life of 2 hours in humans, producing a single burst of growth hormone release peaking at about 40 minutes after injection, with a clean pharmacological profile. |
| Thymosin beta4 accelerates wound healing | TB-500 | Recovery | 1999 | Journal of Investigative Dermatology | Animal | Thymosin beta-4 applied topically or by injection increased skin wound healing by 42% at 4 days and up to 61% at 7 days compared to controls, with increased collagen deposition and new blood vessel formation. |
| Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue | Ipamorelin | Hormone | 1998 | European Journal of Endocrinology | Animal | Ipamorelin was identified as the first truly selective growth hormone secretagogue that stimulates GH release without significantly affecting cortisol or other stress hormones, unlike other GH-releasing peptides. |
| Endocrine and metabolic effects of long-term administration of growth hormone-releasing hormone-(1-29)-NH2 in age-advanced men and women | Sermorelin | Hormone, Anti-Aging | 1997 | Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | Clinical | Nightly sermorelin administration for 4 months activated the growth hormone axis in older adults, improving general well-being and libido in men. The only side effect was temporary elevated cholesterol that resolved by study end. |
| BPC 157's effect on healing | BPC-157 | Recovery, Gut Health | 1997 | Journal of Physiology - Paris | Review | Early research established BPC-157 as a gastric peptide with broad healing effects across multiple tissue types, laying the groundwork for decades of subsequent research into its therapeutic applications. |
| Low-dose growth hormone-releasing hormone tests: a dose-response study | Sermorelin | Hormone | 1994 | Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | Clinical | Sermorelin showed a clear dose-response relationship for stimulating growth hormone release, helping establish optimal dosing guidelines for both diagnostic testing and therapeutic use. |
| A comparative study of growth hormone (GH) and GH-releasing hormone(1-29)-NH2 for stimulation of growth in children with GH deficiency | Sermorelin | Hormone | 1993 | Journal of Pediatrics | RCT | Sermorelin (GHRH 1-29) was compared directly to growth hormone for treating GH-deficient children, showing that stimulating the body's own GH production can be an effective alternative to direct GH replacement. |
| A randomized trial to evaluate the immunorestorative properties of synthetic thymosin-alpha 1 in patients with lung cancer | Thymosin Alpha-1 | Immune | 1985 | Journal of Biological Response Modifiers | RCT | In non-small cell lung cancer patients, thymosin alpha-1 treatment normalized T-cell function and was associated with significant improvements in relapse-free and overall survival rates. |
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About This Research Database
How We Select Studies
Every study in this database was sourced from PubMed, the U.S. National Library of Medicine's index of biomedical literature. We prioritize research that has been published in peer-reviewed journals with established impact factors. Our selection process focuses on studies that are directly relevant to the therapeutic applications of each peptide — we include research on efficacy, mechanism of action, safety profiles, and dosing parameters.
We include multiple study types to give readers a complete picture of the evidence landscape. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) represent the gold standard of clinical evidence, while animal studies and in vitro research provide important mechanistic insights, especially for peptides that lack extensive human trial data. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses aggregate findings across multiple studies and are valuable for understanding overall trends in the evidence.
Understanding Study Types
Not all research carries equal weight. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are the most rigorous, randomly assigning participants to treatment or placebo groups to control for bias. Clinical studies involve human subjects but may lack randomization or blinding. Animal studies provide preliminary evidence of biological activity, though results do not always translate to humans. Systematic reviews methodically analyze all available research on a topic, and meta-analyses pool data from multiple studies to calculate aggregate effect sizes.
When evaluating peptide therapies, it is important to consider the full evidence hierarchy. A peptide supported primarily by animal research is at a much earlier stage of validation than one with multiple large-scale RCTs. We display study types prominently in this database so you can make informed assessments about the strength of evidence for each compound.
Limitations
While this database is the most comprehensive publicly accessible collection of peptide research we are aware of, it has limitations. It does not include every study ever published on these peptides — we focus on the most cited, most relevant, and most methodologically sound papers. The "Key Finding" field summarizes the main conclusion in plain language, but reading the full abstract on PubMed is always recommended for a complete understanding of any study's results, methodology, and limitations.
Additionally, the regulatory status of peptides changes frequently. The FDA's 2025-2026 reclassification of bulk drug substances has affected which peptides can legally be compounded and prescribed in the United States. Research evidence alone does not determine regulatory approval — a peptide may have promising data but still lack the large-scale trials required for FDA clearance.
Continue Your Research
This database is a starting point. For deeper exploration of individual peptides, visit our comprehensive guides:
- BPC-157: The Complete Guide — our most popular guide covering 18 published studies
- Peptides for Weight Loss — the evidence on semaglutide, tirzepatide, and AOD-9604
- Peptides for Anti-Aging — GHK-Cu, NAD+, and the longevity research
- Best Peptides for Recovery — BPC-157, TB-500, and healing peptides
- FDA Peptide Reclassification 2026 — the latest regulatory changes and what they mean
For the latest research updates delivered to your inbox, join The Weekly Peptide Brief — our newsletter covering new studies, protocol breakdowns, and regulatory changes.
Frequently Asked Questions
How were these studies selected?
Every study in this database was sourced from PubMed and published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. We prioritize studies with direct relevance to therapeutic applications — including efficacy, dosing, mechanism of action, and safety data. We include randomized controlled trials, clinical studies, animal research, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses to show the full spectrum of available evidence for each peptide. Studies are selected based on citation frequency, methodological rigor, and relevance to commonly asked patient and clinician questions.
What is the difference between RCT and clinical studies?
A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is the gold standard of clinical evidence. Participants are randomly assigned to receive either the treatment being tested or a placebo/comparison treatment, and ideally neither the participant nor the researcher knows which group they are in (double-blind). This design minimizes bias and provides the strongest evidence of cause and effect. A "clinical study" in our database refers to human research that does not meet the full RCT criteria — it may be observational, open-label (non-blinded), or lack a true control group. Clinical studies still provide valuable data, but their conclusions are considered less definitive than those from well-designed RCTs.
Are peptide therapies FDA-approved?
A few peptides have received full FDA approval: semaglutide (Ozempic/Wegovy), tirzepatide (Mounjaro/Zepbound), and PT-141/bremelanotide (Vyleesi) among them. These have completed the rigorous multi-phase clinical trial process required for FDA clearance. Many other peptides in this database — such as BPC-157, Sermorelin, and GHK-Cu — are used therapeutically through compounding pharmacies under physician authority but have not completed the full FDA approval pathway. Research evidence and FDA approval are distinct: a peptide may have promising published data but still lack the large-scale Phase III trials and New Drug Application needed for formal approval. The FDA's 2025-2026 reclassification of peptides as bulk drug substances has further complicated the regulatory landscape. See our FDA reclassification guide for current details.
How do I read a clinical study?
Start with the abstract, which summarizes the study's purpose, methods, results, and conclusions. Key sections to focus on: the Methods section tells you how the study was designed (sample size, duration, whether it was randomized or blinded); the Results section presents the data including statistical significance (look for p-values less than 0.05, which indicate the result is unlikely due to chance); and the Discussion section is where the authors interpret their findings and acknowledge limitations. Pay attention to sample size (larger is generally more reliable), whether the study was conducted in humans or animals, and whether the journal is well-established. Our "Key Finding" column provides a plain-language summary, but clicking through to PubMed for the full abstract is always recommended.
Where can I find more peptide research?
PubMed (pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) is the primary database for biomedical research and is freely accessible. Every title in our database links directly to its PubMed listing. Google Scholar (scholar.google.com) provides another search option and often surfaces related papers. For full-text access, look for "Free PMC article" tags on PubMed, use your local library's database access, or try Sci-Hub for older publications. Our individual peptide guides also include curated reference lists — check the guides index for deep dives into specific compounds.
Can I share a filtered view of this database?
Yes. The database automatically updates your browser's URL as you apply filters. For example, filtering to BPC-157 recovery studies will produce a URL like
/research?peptide=BPC-157&category=Recovery. You can copy this URL from your browser's address bar and share it — anyone who opens the link will see the same filtered view. This makes it easy to share specific research subsets with your physician, colleagues, or anyone else reviewing peptide evidence.